The Road Not Taken

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;

Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim
Because it was grassy and wanted wear,
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,

And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I marked the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way
I doubted if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.

Robert Frost

I really do feel like I’ve been on a journey.  I am satisfied to be an academic wanderer. 

Favorite quote:  “The transformation is one of self-authorship, of becoming the definer of one’s acceptability.”  Kegan, 1995, p. 301

Activity 7.5: What Makes a Successful Learner-An Interview with Malcolm Gladwell

Malcolm Gladwell emphasizes the idea of the cultural legacy; the persistence of cultural patterns over time.  Looking at the culture on one’s ancestors, and the corresponding belief systems, life styles, and behavioral patterns, one might predict the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals (such as the inhabitants of Harlen).  When I think about this point I am reminded of two ideas that have been discussed in our class.  One is Jerome Bruner’s emphasis on culture in his explanation of the way we learn.  Culture, those systems and stimuli that surround us each and every day and are part of our every waking moment, present a lens through which everything we learn is viewed and interpreted.  Culture instills in each of us a perspective.  This doesn’t mean that there is no such thing as individualism, and as Bandura noted cultures and nations are not monolithic, but it does mean that there are understandings that are shared by groups, and those immersed in a group have a point of departure for their learning.

The cultural norms that are accepted and promulgated by a group are then modeled for new citizens in the environment.  In this way I believe Gladwell’s theory align’s with Bandura’s triadic reciprocality.  While it is true that Gladwell may not see the relationship as balanced and completely reciprocal, on this point Bandura and Gladwell are in agreement:  we learn through observation (modeling).  Learners watch and observe the lifestyles or actions of their mentors, parents, leaders, and they establish belief systems that direct their learning.  In Gladwell’s model this modeling is primarily cultural, although he states in the interview that he does not know why these cultural legacies persist.

I think that another point that Gladwell makes is that once you have reached a certain level of ability or attainment, nothing beyond that point matters.  In other words, given a “reasonable” match between the task at hand the abilities a person has to accomplish that task, there is a threshold of sufficiency that one needs to be successful.  Beyond that, other influences that may contribute to general success can influence outcomes, but, you cannot assume that a characteristic either precludes success or will always lead to success.  His point is that we grossly overemphasize the notions of inherent differences in ability, such as giftedness or talent.  Again, at a certain point, with hard work and persistence, we are all capable.  This reminds me of the Dweck article and the new psychology of success; growth-oriented teaching.  This theory, similarly, emphasizes the ability of individuals to grow their intellect and talents through hard work and persistent effort.

Activity 7.4 kmg part 2

Activity 7.4 kmg part 1

Activity 7.3 Responding to Bandura, 2011

Is motivation inextricably tied to self-efficacy?  Can you be motivated to learn, to accomplish a particular task, to change your way of thinking, to embark on an adventure, to cross the bridge from the third to the fourth order, or from the fourth to the fifth, if you lack a positive sense of self-efficacy?  In his overview of self-efficacy Pajares explains that self-efficacy is a person’s belief about their ability to organize and carry out the necessary tasks or steps needed to accomplish a goal.  The overview of self-efficacy goes on to say that “unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire; they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties” (http://des.emory.edu/mfp/eff.html, retrieved 7/23/2012).  This is probably true in most instances, but not always.  Maybe the question is one of exactly what “belief” is; is it supposing you can’t do it, or thinking you might not be able to do it, or suspecting that you probably can’t do it?  Or is it really having a fundamental feeling of absolute certainty that “this isn’t going to happen”.  Even as I write this I am reminded of a line in the Pajares article.  He is discussing the point of view that reality and potential should be well-matched and he asks not only who is capable of assessing the full potential of another, but “who has the key to understanding the precise nature of reality?” (Pajares, 2005, p. 355). 

Or maybe the question is one of defining motivation.  If you are motivated to do something because you have to do it, is it still motivation?  Albert Bandura notes that “Motivational processes regulate whether people act on what they have learned observationally.”  So, if you observe that waitresses at O’Charlie’s make about $75.00 in tips a night, and you know that your family needs money, even if you feel that you probably won’t get the job, or aren’t young enough or pretty enough to get the job, or maybe believe you can’t do the job, but you decide to apply for the job anyway…are you motivated?  Perhaps a condition of need necessitates an effort that is tied to your sense of efficacy, but overrides your self-doubts or uncertainties, and you truly are motivated; maybe not to be a waitress, but to care for your family.  It may simply boil down to two questions; 1. What are your incentives? and 2. Will they cause you to persevere in the face of difficulties whether you believe you can do it or not?  Maybe the distinction is one between incentives and imperatives? 

I have no doubt that observational learning occurs.  The idea that everything that is ever learned observationally happens as a result of unseen physiological forces and that human choices that result in “deliberative, reflective, self-referential, and other high-level cognitive events are dismissed as epiphenomenal events” (Bandura, 2011, p. 4) seems unreasonable and short-sighted.  I do believe that humans are intentional (sometime to the amazement of those around them) and that this precludes a purely physiological explanation for behavior.  True that much behavior learned observationally is mimicked, but what about the decision to place oneself in the learning environment in the first place?  People do make decisions that change their lives, and consequently what they learn; they join the military, they quit school, they go to school, they get married, they swim in the ocean, they decide to take French.  Could these all be examples of “epiphenomenal events that create an illusion of control but actually have no effect on how one behaves?” (Bandura, 2011, p. 4).

7.2 Exploring Your Own Self-Efficacy

Just about six years ago I began working as an RA for the Human Development Institute.  I was enrolled in the Special Education Teaching Program for Learning and Behavior Disorders.  For two years I worked as an RA while I attended college and completed the program.  When I told my supervisors that I would need to return to work full-time after student-teaching, they asked me to stay and work for ILSSA (Inclusive Large Scale Systems of Assessment).  Well, I wanted to teach, but they offered me more money, and as my husband wasn’t working, and we have four children, I decided to stay at the university.  That began a period of several years, right up to this very moment as a matter of fact, of feeling a sense of low self-efficacy.  It began with work developing assessment items, which had been literally the only academic assignment I had ever failed in my life!  I thought; how can this be?  I’m going to asked to do the one thing that I really can’t do?  Now, my professor had allowed me to repeat that failed assignment, after he explained what it was that he was really looking for, and I had done very well; but I wasn’t convinced. 

So, I managed to make it through the item writing and it actually went very well, and I began to assume other duties at ILSSA, but I was still not confident of my abilities.  My colleagues were all brilliant, they had all been working in the field of severe disabilities for years (I think 12 years was the minimum amount of experience of any single co-worker.).  I constantly felt like I was a few steps behind, a position that made me uncomfortable.  However, my supervisors had confidence in me.  Their general theory of management was “Let individuals rise to the height of their incompetence.”  Just kidding, actually their approach was more like the methods that are discussed in the Pajares article.  They challenged my underconfidence and set proximal goals.  They praised genuinely but not often, so when they did offer a word of encouragement; it really meant something to me.  They had, and still do have, very high expectations.  They believed I could do it, and that compelled me to try.  They offered support and challenge.

Since the first item-writing experience I have presented at a University conference in Pennsylvania (What? I can’t do that!), co-authored a book chapter (What? I can’t write a book!), directed several scoring centers (What? I don’t know the first thing about scoring!), conducted numerous large trainings (What? I can’t teach this!), worked with a system database designer to test three extensive assessment and training systems (What? I’m not good at technology!), and facilitated many processes that I had never been involved with before the moment I showed up as a facilitator.  As I write this I am beginning work on a new project and I’ve been asked to lead ILSSA’s design team in our work on a national assessment system.  I think that my feelings of inefficacy have stemmed from the fact that I have always been surrounded by people of tremendous intellect whom I perceived as having more, and more relevant, experience.  Many of the individuals I work with have doctorate degrees and I have always thought of them as better-educated.  And yet, they believe that I can do it. Maybe I have the imposter syndrome?

Perhaps my sense of self-efficacy is not as low as I have believed.  In my statistics class last fall our professor asked us to pick ONE adjective that we felt best described ourselves.  I chose “determined”.  If I am nothing else, I am determined, and isn’t that a characteristic of an individual with a strong sense of self-efficacy, “because self-efficacy is not so much about learning how to succeed as it is about learning how to persevere” (Pajares, 2005, p. 345).

Activity 7.1 Social Cognitive Theory, Motivation and Self-Beliefs

PERSONAL                          interest                                    tenacity                       open-mindedness        attention                        motivation                   respect for the opinions and viewpoints of others                                          reflectiveness              curiosity                      intuitiveness                self-efficacy                perceptiveness             humility                       meta cognitive ability                                      intelligence                  perseverance                determination              confidence                  comfort in new environments or with new information or tasks                        communicativeness     openness          gregariousness             stubbornness               self-centeredness            willfulness                   angriness                     resentfulness               bitterness                     close-mindedness            narrowness                  disability                     laziness                        fear                              discomfort                   poor self-image           doubtfulness               disinterest                    irreverence                   disrespectfulness            contemptuousness       distractibility               poor meta cognitive skills                                           intractability                indecisiveness            

BEHAVIORAL        preparedness               paying attention            thoroughness, completing all parts of a task                                       reviewing                    listening carefully            taking the time to reflect on what you’ve heard or experienced                    generalizing information you’ve learned            reformulating information you’ve been given in a way that makes sense for you (notes, etc.)            looking for additional information about something you don’t understand                          asking questions            staying focused and deliberately eliminating distractions                              knowing when you need to walk away and come back                           not giving in to frustration                              brainstorming and outlining                            getting the tools you need and learning how to use them                              repeating processes that aren’t successful the first time            `                       self-assessment            not finishing work       horsing around or multi-tasking (this is a euphemism for checking your cell phone or email), working on more than one thing at a time                                    setting aside insufficient time to accomplish a task                over-committing                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              ENVIRONMENT            minimization of distractions (noise, other people with conflicting demands, phones or other message-delivering devices)                              surroundings that contain the tools that you need to support your learning (books, pencils and pens, paper, computers, references, projectors, etc.)                   Subject matter experts that can help with your learning, guide a learning community, or share in your learning                    quietness when needed                                                text or visual image rich surroundings                        collaborative interactions                                safety              comfort           peers and others with similar interests                        mentors or teachers             opportunities to observe or experience those things you want to learn about                                    resource richness          

Activity 6.4 Self-Regulation and Meta Cognition, Post 2

We read Hamlet’s Blackberry in a course that I took in the Instructional Systems Design program last fall.  Although obviously the book hasn’t changed since the first time I read it, viewing it through a different lens (learning and cognition vs. the use of technology), and pairing it with Keegan’s discussion of self-regulation in terms of the expectation of self-directedness for adult learners, lends a different perspective to this work.  Although I immediately identified with Power’s sense of hyper-connectivity, I was surrounded by “techies” and many of my classmates were very excited about all the ways that we connect in society today.  The prevailing sentiment in the group seemed to be one of comfort with multiple layers of contact and instant accessibility to others and from others.  The few of us who were not sure we wanted to be accessible at all times, and who did not spend much time “facebooking” or “skyping”, were older than the other students.  I interpreted this as a generational phenomenon, and thought that my age explained my preferences.  Perhaps it still does, but when the discussion is extended to one of self-regulation in general, it becomes more apparent to me that I am making assumptions that are probably not accurate. 

I asked my son, who will soon be nineteen, how he felt about connectivity and communication through technology.  He spends time on Facebook, and texts his friends regularly, and does not mind being accessible via his phone.  However, he doesn’t keep his phone with him at all times and fairly regularly leaves home without it.  We also talked about his job search.  He is very frustrated that 95% of the applications he completes are completed online, and even when he goes to potential employment sites to follow up on an application he has submitted, he is told that he cannot see or talk with anyone.  So obviously this desire to regulate the amount of communication and interaction that occurs through technology is not purely a generational phenomenon.

In Keegan’s chapter 8 excerpt he describes the typical goals of adult learners who are returning to school, “Only a fraction of the adults entering school programs do so with the hope or intention of personally growing from being in school.  Most have what they (and we?) would consider far more practical goals, such as getting ahead in their work lives.” (Keegan, 1994, p. 293). Once an adult learner enters the typical college environment they are required to be self-directed and Keegan notes that the literature tells us that there is a good deal of frustration on the part of educators who find that many adults are not capable of becoming truly self-directed learners.  I would argue that an adult who is able to assess their life (their goals, their environment, their accomplishments, their level of satisfaction, etc.), make a decision that a college education would offer greater opportunities, expand their horizons, improve their abilities, or in some other way enhance their present condition, then make all of the changes, decisions, and preparations necessary to re-enter the college environment, is already self-directed to some extent.  Learning to be thoughtful, analytic, reflective, creative, and to demonstrate individual initiative can certainly be challenging.  In Gerald Grow’s summary of the characteristics of the self-directed learner he describes such as individual as one who is “both able and willing to take responsibility for their learning, direction, and productivity.” (Keegan, 1994, p. 274).  Perhaps not all adult learners who return to college have moved from the third to the fourth order; but they are responsible in part for their learning just by virtue of the fact that they are there.

Activity 6.3 Returning to Free Will

William James writes that “our moral effort, properly so called, terminates in our holding fast to the appropriate idea.” (James, 1899, p. 186).  Preceding this statement James discusses the building of character in students and the interplay of impulse and inhibition.  He ties this to his definition of character as “an organized set of habits of reaction” (James, 1899, p. 184).  I have frequently pondered the point at which possession of information ceases to become only knowledge and becomes a force in our decision making process, information that becomes determinant of who we are and what we choose.  James writes also that “Our volitional habits depend, then, first, on what the stock of ideas is which we have; and, second, on the habitual coupling of the several ideas with action or inaction respectively.” (James, 1899, p. 184).  Perhaps the answer to this question, then, resides in the important aspect of the habitual coupling of our ideas.  I wonder why some individuals have the power to overcome addictions?  It seems obvious that addiction is related to the habitual coupling of ideas and action, and science tells us that there is a physiological basis for many addictions.  What then, is the defining component, the catalyst, that endows an individual with the capacity to overcome long-standing patterns of behavior and move the behavior to a decision point, the decision; “Will you or won’t you have it so?”  In the video Robert Richardson mentions the profound observation that James makes in a footnote about attention.  “The world we attend to is reality.  Attention is a motor reaction and we are so made that sensations force attention from us.  Belief and attention are the same fact.” Belief and attention are the same fact…this is profound.  If this is true, could we change what we believe about ourselves by changing what we pay attention to?  I believe that we could.  I believe this is so powerful.  I have never worked with addicted individuals, but of course there are many who do.  How would they change the focus of attention of the individuals who come to them for help? I am sure this must be a component of programs that treat addiction.

As I get older maintaining a reasonable weight has become an increasingly difficult challenge.  My single most successful tactic is diversion.  In other words, I love to eat, and in order to eat less I must put my attention elsewhere.  It helps, of course, if I focus my attention on habits that will further my goal, such as healthy eating habits, yoga, or bicycling.  However, underneath it all I still believe that I am not going to be successful.  Where do I need to put my attention so I can change my belief and successfully solve this problem?

Activity 6.2 Videos on Problem Solving

The video on Math Class Needs a makeover reminds me of an experience I had in student teaching.  I was placed in Woodford County High School in a literature class with thirteen young men and one young woman.  Every day we were required to complete entry and exit slip exercises. Up until the point I took over both of these were simply three or four sentences (cloze or short answer) on the board which students were required to answer on a piece of paper they turned in to the teacher.  In the entry exercise I witnessed, a short text was distributed to the students.  In it a young girl was setting up a classroom for her dolls in her bedroom, using papers she retrieved from the trash in her teacher’s classroom.  Content questions about the text were written on the board.  The students were definitely unmotivated, disinterested, just wanted the correct vocabulary to complete the sentences so they could forget the entire exercise as quickly as possible…I wanted to forget the exercise.  When I was asked to deliver the entry and exit slips, I asked if I could change the format.  I incorporated photos and short videos and projected the entry and exit slips every day.  I chose subjects such as tractor pulls and chase scenes.  I asked the students to write their own questions, hypothesize endings, or just write three descriptive statements about what they had seen.  We talked about what we were seeing and used participation as a criteria.  I asked questions, eventually, using content vocabulary and they were able to respond.  This experience isn’t precisely what was happening in the math class, but it was similar.  It brings me back to the question, also, of motivation.  Historically I believe I have tended to underestimate the role of motivation in student learning.  I am beginning to see that it plays a much more important role than I realized.

I thought that the observation about raising the stakes for the marshmallow challenge was extremely interesting.  I work with large scale assessments and I tend to believe that assessment results are not being used the way they were intended to be used.  Of course this is a contentious issue in our political and educational environment, but surely this is an analogous situation.  The stakes for summative assessment have consistently elevated and there has been a corresponding escalation in unintended (and unfavorable) consequences, one of which arguably is that students are not experiencing education in a rich and thoughtful way as one would hope they would.  In other words, just as in the case of the marshmallow challenge, the higher stakes (which could be positive in terms of funding and recognition) have actually led to less proficient accomplishments with respect to the problem solving goal of proficiency for all students.  Nel Noddings notes that students who buy into the achievement motivation are “often both “successful” and miserably unhappy.” (Nodding, 2006, p. 17).  She encourages educators to ask themselves what achievement motivation is and whether or not being motivated to achieve is always a good thing.  It is difficult to conceive, but perhaps there should have been a little more work on the front end, a better recognition and consequent definition of the problem as Pretz, Naples and Sternberg would recommend, with less focus on developing the solution strategy.

Activity 6.4? Additional Resource on cognition and reflective thinking, reposted

http://www.buffalo.edu/news/10440

September issue of the journal Trends in Cognitive Science (Volume 13, Issue 9)

This article briefly discusses Dr. David Smith’s (University of Buffalo) research on animals’ metacognitive abilities.  Dr. Smith’s research indicates that there are some animals that demonstrate ability for metacognition; they “may share humans' ability to reflect upon, monitor or regulate their states of mind”.  I selected this article because I am very interested in the ability to reflect, and the difference it makes in learning.  If we attempt to explain the learning process with a theory, and then make predictions about learners’ behavior based on how we understand learning, we can then possibly explain unexpected outcomes in terms of learners’ ability to reflect upon their own thought.  I wonder why we (humans) occasionally make very deliberate decisions to change our learning, or our schema.  If we define learning as “response acquisition, knowledge acquisition, or knowledge construction” what would explain a conscious decision to respond in a way that would be contrary to the current information, environment, or stimulus?  I think that if we think about learning as knowledge construction, then we might suppose that at some point learners were exposed to information that caused them to have more than one schema which they were able to relate to a particular stimulus.  In this instance, in the dual memory model, learners would retrieve the alternate schema from their long term memories.  What do they do if they are unable to reconcile the existing schemas? What is the origin of a new response to the existing schemas?  It must be that at least one of the schemas retrieved from long term memory presents a new perspective learners choose as the schema they now want to apply to the information.  So, is reflection choice?  If reflection is choice, then we as learners make a choice about what we want to learn.  This would be part of the control (executive) processes; the process of selection.  If we as humans, and perhaps also some animals, are able to select, or choose, then how can we anticipate learning?  Would this mean that we would need to know and understand learners’ repertoires?  Of course, we cannot do this.  So, if we are able to trace the phylogenetic origins of metacognitive thinking in animals, and perhaps understand better the antecedents of human consciousness as the article suggests, might we become better at presenting those alternative inputs, that are perceived through the sensory registers, placed in short term memory, held while we retrieve long term memories, and then operated upon through the implementation of processing routines?  Could we possibly become more effective at guiding learners’ choices?  Of course this is important in terms of teaching.  I think I mentioned that I thought what separated humans from animals was their ability to be reflective…perhaps not?

Activity 6.1 Problem Solving

Problem solving is analogous to learning because it is a process in which learners, or people with problems, attempt to call upon associations in their long term memory to achieve a goal for which they have no known solution.  In other words, problem solvers must study the discrepancy or problem, make connections to the information they currently have to hypothesize a solution, possibly attempt to solve the problem, and if they fail, analyze their failed attempts to design another approach, and then try again until they arrive at a solution.  Once they have a solution, they are in possession of knowledge they did not have when they began the process.  The knowledge in the case of trial and error has been constructed through the repetitive attempts to solve the problem, and the refinement of the problem solvers’ associations.  Repeated experiences with problem-solving will expand the problem solvers’ repertoires and result in more numerous or better-defined connections.  Once problem solvers have a solution to a problem, they can apply the solution to similar problems that arise.  The trial and error process sounds a lot like Piaget’s process of adaptation; accommodation and assimilation.  Any information that is useful and related to the problem at hand can be assimilated in the problem-solving schema or knowledge structure.  Information that does not fit in a currently existing knowledge structure may result in accommodation.  Problem solvers will modify their currently existing problem solving knowledge structures to fit the observation(s) they have made during their problem solving process.  Through the process of problem solving it is likely that problem solvers will alter their behavior and equally likely that each successive attempt will in some way change their capacity to behave and possibly develop what James referred to as “the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior” (James, 1899, p. 29) that work well when these problem solvers encounter the problem (or a similar problem) again.

If you define problem solving as it is defined by John Bransford  in the class PowerPoint, (2012) “the process of achieving a desired goal, for which there was initially no familiar solution”, (slide 17), then I believe that it is not necessary to solve a problem to learn.  This is simply because I believe that we do not always have a goal when we are learning; I think this is frequently true, but not a necessary prerequisite to learning.  We may learn unintentionally through an experience or event, acquiring episodic knowledge.

I recently was assigned a new responsibility at work.  We are building a system that will deliver a national assessment and also house professional development, track certifications and training, generate reports, exchange data with state systems, and serve as a point of contact and exchange for communities of practice.  This project is much larger than any other system I have designed, and I honestly felt overwhelmed.  There are so many people involved, all over the country, and it was very difficult to define the problem!  We convened for two three day meetings, bringing together subject matter experts, design architects, and program administrators.  In the first of these meetings we broke down the project into component parts (fractionation) and we brainstormed ideas for meeting the needs of the project through contributions and work efforts of each of the project participants.  All attendees of the meeting were free to voice their opinions and thoughts and respond to the contributions of the others.  This sounds like a think and talk aloud to me.  Then we adjourned for a week and each of us thought through our experience at the meeting (incubating).  We reconvened for a second three day meeting in which we reviewed what we thought we knew, talked about innovative alternate approaches to several of the problems we had identified, further refined our ideas and defined the problem.  Then we all went home to reflect upon our meetings and our process.  I said just today to my boss that the most beneficial outcome of the process was that as a group we discovered how much there is to be done.  We have many calls and meetings ahead, and though I literally have three pages of decisions that are yet to be made, for me the problem is defined and I have a direction.

Activity 5.5 Group discussion and post on memory and cognitive load

Our group discussion about the video focused on Jennifer’s video on synesthesia.  In the video Daniel Tammet says “Our personal perceptions are at the heart of learning.”  Why and how we pay attention to stimulus in our environment are at the root of our personal perceptions.  I agreed with his premise that there are some characteristics of words in particular that seem intuitively pleasing or correct. Although they approach learning in very different ways, the cross-talk between the senses that Daniel mentions is related to the techniques advocated in my video; for instance when they suggest embedding text in images to increase the likelihood it will be remembered.

Our group feels that no single method of instruction is the answer.  A skillful combination of guided instruction and opportunity for self-directed learning seems to best meet the needs of learners.  Although we agreed that guided instruction can be useful, particularly for targeted skills, we also felt that Kirschner, Sweller and Clark presented an extreme view of constructivist instruction.  I think the authors were better balanced when they acknowledged that practical application of inquiry and problem-solving skills seemed positive and cautioned against considering this the only useful methodology.

Activity 5.4 Watch Two Additional Videos on Memory

I watched the TED video posted by Jennifer Hoffman, Daniel Tammet: Different ways of knowing at:

http://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_tammet_different_ways_of_knowing.html

and the video posted by Tia Williams titled; Understanding Memory at:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFC9pqPokNO

Activity 5.3 Find and Post a Video on Memory

This first video is the video we discussed in group.  Although I liked the material in the book, I didn’t like the presentation in the video and didn’t consider it a reliable source so I wanted to find another that looked at what “cues” memory, or calls us to pay attention, learn and remember.  http://youtube.googleapis.com/v/OVXMAnSkvMg&fs=1&source=uds&autoplay=1

One of the videos I watched when I was looking for one of my own was about observational learning and dance.  My daughter dances on a competitive team and performs with the team, as part of small groups, and as a soloist.  Each year her team members memorize several dances which they perform together as well as numerous small group routines and solos.  They practice and perform these numbers for each other.  Invariably my daughter and her friends memorize (or learn) each other’s dances.   The typically remember these dances, at least in part, from year to year.  Although they do not use the term “muscle memory” in the video, the instructor talks about incorporating the memory of the dance into motor skills that can be reproduced.  The professor also talks about establishing patterns of behavior that can be reproduced or drawn upon.  The learning of my daughter’s dance team and the dancers in the video could be labeled observational learning. I believe this type of learning is an example of what William James refers to as established habits, or as associations that form a concept system.  Patterns of behavior that have been rehearsed and are associated with a particular piece of music are essentially habits.

http://youtube.googleapis.com/v/0HEquWxFWz0&fs=1&source=uds&autoplay=1

I wanted to include this video as well because there is a salient position I didn’t hear mentioned in others.  This is that a prerequisite to learning is the ability to identify meaningful actions.  For me, this related to the idea of attention and was a connection to my previous statements in the first activity. My husband is constantly annoyed with my lack of knowledge with respect to the comings and goings of my neighbors.  Truthfully, I don’t care what my neighbors are doing (lack of motivation) and I don’t usually watch them or think about them (lack of attention).  When my husband asks “Did you notice Rader bought a new car?” I must honestly respond “No.”  I don’t remember what Rader’s previous car looked like.  During my search I also read an article titled “There is no such thing as Attention.”  It was published online in the September 23, 2011 issue of Frontiers in Psychology and was written by Britt Anderson.  I made a point of saying in the first activity that I believed attention was a critical factor in determining how and where we put things in our memory, but Anderson states that attention is not causal and quoted Carrasco when he said “the claim that attention alters perceptual quality is still actively debated.” (2009). 

http://www.youtube.com/v/8tJPJBbUTDc&fs=1&source=uds&autoplay=1

Activity 5.2 Long-term Memory and Retrieval

I wonder how the concept of Universal Design for Learning came to be perceived as a new framework for instruction in the early 1990’s?  William James was promoting Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in 1892!  I found this quote in chapter XII to be absolutely stunning: 

“the only really useful practical lesson that emerges from this analytic psychology in the conduct of large schools is the lesson already reached in a purely empirical way, that the teacher ought always to impress the class through as many sensible channels as he can.  Talk and write and draw on the blackboard, permit the pupils to talk, and make them write and draw, exhibit pictures, plans, and curves, have your diagrams colored differently in their different parts, etc.; and out of the whole variety of impressions the individual child will find the most lasting ones for himself. (pp. 138-139)

James notes that the recommendation that teachers assess the channel through which each of their students more readily retains information and then teach the student primarily through that channel is not really practical in most classrooms and follows that observation with the comment above.  If you read information about UDL currently available in public (for instance on the CAST website http://www.cast.org/research/index.html ), you find that this concept is considered relatively new.  Perhaps it is the particular articulation of UDL which CAST lays claim to rather than the general concept.  I work in the field of special education and multiple means of representation and expression are a keystone in the design of specially designed and delivered instruction, but I agree with William James; any and all students benefit from this approach.  I have certainly found this to be true when I help my children with concepts that are difficult for them to grasp.  I simply approach the concept differently until I light upon a method or representation that works for them.

Activity 5.1 Warm-up: Long Term Memory and Retrieval

I do believe that learning depends on memory.  Of course, memory is referred to in many different ways; short-term memory, long-term memory, instant recall, and muscle memory to name a few.  What makes us pay attention and remember something?  I think we are often unaware that learning has occurred within ourselves.  We take in so much (input or stimulus) in every moment that we couldn’t possibly think to ourselves; “I just noticed this.  I just made this connection.  I know that is related to something else I have stored away.” and so forth.  It is as though we have a huge internal filing cabinet and our brains automatically categorize and file away our many memories without conscious recognition of the fact that we are doing so.  Perhaps we haven’t really forgotten so much of what we have learned; perhaps it is a question of accessing the memory.  Memories seem to be cued, or brought forth, in response to specific stimuli.  If we are not exposed to the correct stimuli, or we do not choose the correct path to the memory, we can’t access it (We have opened the wrong drawer in our file.).  In the construction of a memory it seems critical that we are paying attention.  This may determine the nature of the cue or path to a memory.  If we are not paying attention, our brain may construct a memory, but the path to that memory may not be one that we can access at our discretion.  In education we want to obtain and hopefully keep the attention of our students.  This may enable them to construct memories that they can willfully access and retrieve when they wish.  I remember years ago in an introductory psychology course we talked about the things that attract our attention; death, sex, etc.  This led to a discussion about subliminal advertising, which I interpret as an attempt to instill memories that are subconscious and will lead to anticipated behaviors unbeknownst to the holder of the memory.  So, these are all interesting questions.  I do think we learn many things that are not part of our “easily-accessed” repertoire and that the way we pay attention and make those associations has a great deal to do with our eventual perception of what we know.

Activity 4.4 Open Post

Christine Rosen describes multitasking as the “human attempt to do simultaneously as many things as possible, as quickly as possible, preferably marshaling the power of as many technologies as possible” (2008, 1, Rosen). I am interested in this topic as I am frequently busier than I would like to be.  Perhaps this is uncomfortable for me because I am not a member of the younger generation discussed in the article.  Reflection seems the natural outgrowth of focus, the antithesis to multitasking.  I wonder, is reflection necessary for meaningful, long term, learning, or any learning?  Meaningful is subjective but if we consider just the physical aspect, Russell Poldrack has observed physiological differences in the brain activity of those engaged in multitasking versus focused learning.  I recently attended a meeting to define the scope of a very large, complex project.  We met, literally, in an old farmhouse in the country; no phones, etc.  It was incredibly effective.  We were able to reflect upon and refine what we were learning through the dialogue and built in “reflective time”.  Many individuals study a painting or sculpture to arrive at an understanding that can’t be obtained without studious focus; can one appreciate art without focus?

Activity 4.3 Learning Styles

The Learning Styles article supports or confirms what I have learned in my program at the University of Kentucky.  I remember reading Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences.  At the time, it was a very popular theory and I believe that the reasons set forth by Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, and Bjork for the popularity of the learning styles concept (the appeal of finding out what type of person you are, the feeling of being treated as an individual by educators, the decreased responsibility for one’s own learning) are the real reasons for its’ popularity, not the fact that outcomes demonstrate a true effect of the use of learning styles.  Gardner discussed multiple intelligences that learners use to effectively access information, including such intelligences (or styles) as musical or kinesthetic learning.  I think these are learning styles and in my opinion learning styles are preferences.  As the authors state, when asked to provide a preference most learners are very willing to do so. There is one way in which the process of matching learners’ learning styles to instruction could be effective; this is in generating motivation for enthusiasm.  Perhaps, if specially designed or tailored instruction is provided to learners they might respond with increased levels of motivation or enthusiasm, which could possibly lead to improved outcomes.  I believe this would be in response to the attention more than in response to the style of learning and I don’t think there would be any way in which you could predict the level of engagement.  Also, as the authors point out, the benefits of this approach would potentially be outweighed by investment in other, research-based and proven, approaches.

Activity 4.1 Resource on Perception

David Bohm on perception

Sat, 21 Apr 2007 03:44:59 PDT

Physicist David Bohm talks about truth and perception. You can find the entire interview at: billangelos.typepad.com

This video clip is fascinating!!  David Bohm describes perception as an active process, and goes on to say that “everything is appearance even our thoughts are fundamentally appearances, how things appear to the mind” (2:35 in the video).  We acquire many views of something we are perceiving, views which we integrate to arrive at a coherent understanding; the more views we accumulate and combine, the deeper our understanding.  However, the “true being”, or the reality is illusive because no matter how many views we integrate there is always a different, or deeper, or smaller grained view.  In his discussion of the circle he breaks it down into progressively smaller pieces until he arrives at quarks, with the implication being that someday we may discover something smaller than quarks.  This, of course, is a series of physical breakdowns, or views, but there is the potential for as many or more views of all things.  What’s fascinating about this is the question, “What do we really know?” or “Is there really an absolute knowledge that we can obtain?”  Based on what we are learning here, I would think not.  This reminds me of chapter 12 in the Blank Slate.  Pinker talks about relativists and says “Appealing to “facts” or “the truth” is just a ruse, relativists say, because there is no “truth” in the sense of an objective yardstick independent of cultural and political presuppositions.”  In terms of my own experience, I think about my childhood and realize that I really don’t know what the truth is.  I know what my truth is, but as I don’t know anyone who knew me before I was 15, not only do I only have only my own perception, I also can’t shape or refine that perception because there aren’t other views to contribute.  However, Pinker does go on to discuss conceptual categories and the fact that this kind of intelligence works because “the world really does contain ducks, which really do share properties.”  Hence, I may not know an absolute truth, but I do know the relative truth.

Activity 4.1 Resource on Perception

http://www.buffalo.edu/news/10440

September issue of the journal Trends in Cognitive Science (Volume 13, Issue 9)

This article briefly discusses Dr. David Smith’s (University of Buffalo) research on animals’ metacognitive abilities.  Dr. Smith’s research indicates that there are some animals that demonstrate ability for metacognition; they “may share humans' ability to reflect upon, monitor or regulate their states of mind”.  I selected this article because I am very interested in the ability to reflect, and the difference it makes in learning.  If we attempt to explain the learning process with a theory, and then make predictions about learners’ behavior based on how we understand learning, we can then possibly explain unexpected outcomes in terms of learners’ ability to reflect upon their own thought.  I wonder why we (humans) occasionally make very deliberate decisions to change our learning, or our schema.  If we define learning as “response acquisition, knowledge acquisition, or knowledge construction” what would explain a conscious decision to respond in a way that would be contrary to the current information, environment, or stimulus?  I think that if we think about learning as knowledge construction, then we might suppose that at some point learners were exposed to information that caused them to have more than one schema which they were able to relate to a particular stimulus.  In this instance, in the dual memory model, learners would retrieve the alternate schema from their long term memories.  What do they do if they are unable to reconcile the existing schemas? What is the origin of a new response to the existing schemas?  It must be that at least one of the schemas retrieved from long term memory presents a new perspective learners choose as the schema they now want to apply to the information.  So, is reflection choice?  If reflection is choice, then we as learners make a choice about what we want to learn.  This would be part of the control (executive) processes; the process of selection.  If we as humans, and perhaps also some animals, are able to select, or choose, then how can we anticipate learning?  Would this mean that we would need to know and understand learners’ repertoires?  Of course, we cannot do this.  So, if we are able to trace the phylogenetic origins of metacognitive thinking in animals, and perhaps understand better the antecedents of human consciousness as the article suggests, might we become better at presenting those alternative inputs, that are perceived through the sensory registers, placed in short term memory, held while we retrieve long term memories, and then operated upon through the implementation of processing routines?  Could we possibly become more effective at guiding learners’ choices?  Of course this is important in terms of teaching.  I think I mentioned that I thought what separated humans from animals was their ability to be reflective…perhaps not?

Activity 3.4 Bart the Genius: Constructivism applied?

Eleanor Duckworth would say in Bart’s new classroom children are free to have wonderful ideas.  The teacher accepts the risk associated with providing Bart the opportunity to explore in chemistry.  The classroom environment is one in which the teacher provides “matter to think about” and students interact and explore to construct meaning, but Bart lacks the knowledge (his "personal repetoire of thoughts, actions, predictions and feelings") needed.  Airasian and Walsh would caution that constructivist instruction should not constitute the only instructional process and that pursuing constructivist methods of instruction does not mean accepting anything and everything as evidence of learning.

Activity 3.3 Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of language in learning and states that “learning and development are interrelated from the first day of life”.  Through obuchenie the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is activated and awakens “developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment”.  In the ZPD a child may understand what a variable is, but not be able to articulate the process for identifying variables in a word problem.  Through instruction and learning the child interacts with the teacher or more capable peers to learn.  Development results from this learning.  James acknowledges the centrality of language in human learning when he says “verbal material is the vehicle by which the mind thinks”.  He describes language as increasingly important in adolescence, when “”words, words, words” must constitute …an always larger part …of what the human being has to learn”.

Activity 3.2 Cognitive Development

This video demonstrates a conservation problem that Piaget explains in one of four stages of development, the Preoperational Thinking stage that spans the age of 2 to 7.  A characteristic of this age, Piaget explains, is to think perceptively.  This is described as intuitive thinking, and in this instance the younger child perceives the taller, thinner glass as holding more liquid.  Children at this age lack “some specific logical abilities” and thus cannot reason that the amount of liquid has remained the same.  James describes a “native tendency to assimilate certain kinds of conception at one age, and other kinds of conception at a later age”.  In the first seven or eight years constructiveness is the instinct most active in children; children accumulate knowledge when they physically experience the world.  In adolescence they exhibit more abstract thought, and in late adolescence they ponder abstract human relations. 

Activity 3.1 Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism

Learning occurs within individuals through an active process of intrigue, investigation, reasoning and decision-making, and discovery.  All humans are born without knowledge and begin the process of building their own understanding of the world around them.  Interest spurs individuals to investigation, leading them to explore and experiment to answer self-generated questions.  Considering the outcomes of their investigation, individuals reason and make connections to previously constructed knowledge, categorizing new information and sorting it into knowledge constructions that associate and organize information in schemas that are retrieved and considered when individuals encounter new information.  All individuals are biologically motivated to adapt to their environments and organize their knowledge in order to achieve homeostasis.  When individuals feel unbalanced, out of the natural state of homeostasis, they are intrinsically motivated to investigate, and thus begin the process of meaning-making anew.  Individuals learn in qualitatively different ways and their paths of learning will be unique. Despite this, there are biological constraints that govern individuals’ abilities to make decisions about their discoveries; these are four distinct stages of learning.  The educator as facilitator considers the developmental stage of the students and provides as many opportunities for discovery and exploration as possible.   

I would assume that Piaget would not favor a system of standards-based instruction and summative assessment.  I wonder what he would suggest for assessment.  I also wonder what his suggestions for college and career readiness would be.  How would a prospective employer know that a student was adequately prepared to carry out job duties or even exceed expectations?  What would a transition from such an individualized learning style to the demands of the work place feel like for the student?  It seems that some positions would accommodate this learning style readily, and others would not.  If there was a sweeping and comprehensive movement of social constructivism, how would Piaget suggest the workplace prepare for these students?  Or is the goal, despite individualized discovery learning, for students to emerge from HS or college with roughly the same knowledge base?

Activity 2.5 Automaticity and Implicit Associations

I took the 2012 IAT, which asked about preferences for Barak O'Bama vs. Mitt Romney and preferences for either blacks or whites.

I was not surprised by the results of the IAT, but given my group's reactions I was surprised that I wasn't surprised. 
Your data suggest a slight implicit preference for Barack Obama compared to Mitt Romney.
Your data suggest little to no difference in implicit preference between Black People and White People.
I think these results are particularly good for me, as I would not have wanted to discover a hidden prejudice.  I would be sad to think that my subconcious preferences might influence my behavior toward people in my life in a negative way.

The question of what this has to do with both learning and associations is very complex and important for me with respect to this topic.  Interestingly, I didn't specifically choose this topic, I just took what the site said it would like me to take.  It turned out to be a very relevant survey.

I grew up in NE Ohio during the bussing era.  I changed schools several times and was bussed all over the place.  In my senior year in HS my school was closed three times as a result of race rioting.  My father was a bigot and up until my years in HS I was too.  At some point I began to form my own opinion and over time my life changed dramatically.  I now have four wonderful, biracial children and a wonderful african american husband.  So, I wonder now if the question of reflection is again the source of deviation from the expected or anticipated behavior that one may have expected in my case.  I certainly was taught to associate African Americans with crime, violence, theivery, and many other negative characteristics.  In terms of Jame's point of the power of associations, I had powerful associations that definitely shaped my attitudes and behavior for a good part of my youth.  Even when my concious thoughts and perceptions began to change, I would still be more frightened when passing a black man on the street then when passing a white man on the street.  So, how did those powerful associations shape my future behavior as a child, and when did they begin to lose their power over my future behavior as an adult? 

James says in his discussion of what native reactions are that "Each of us is in fact what he is almost exclusively by virtue of his imitativeness." and also "Emulation is the impulse to imitate what you see another doing, in order not to appear inferior; and it is hard to draw a sharp line betwen the manifestations of the two impulses, so inextricably do they mix their effects."  This would seem to offer a very strong reason for my childhood behavior.  James goes on to say "the proper pedagogic moment to work skill in, and to clench the useful habit, is when the native impulse is most acutely present."  and he refers to the ripening of our impulsive tendencies and the law of transitoriness.  So, is it a question of this particular training in my life coming after the perfect moment (at least from my father's perspective) had already come and gone?  Or is it a question of native tendencies, and the fact that there maybe was no native tendency to which this teaching could be attached?  Or is it the fact that in this case there really would be no "useful actions" to make automatic and habitual.  OR, does this all come back to the question of what it means to be educated?  James also says, at the end of chapter VIII when he discusses good and bad, "Silently, between all the details of his business, the power of judging in all that class of matter will have builte itself up withing him as a possession that will never pass away."  Perhaps this is the effect of knowledge and differential reinforcement.  Perhaps there were stronger reinforcers attached to other associations and behaviors.